Common Name: Fish Oil
Synonyms: omega-3 essential fatty acid

Overview:

DHA (docosahexanoic acid) and EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) are both essential omega-3 fatty acids. These omega-3’s are involved in the development and function of the retina of the eye as well as the cerebral cortex of the brain, reproductive organs and prostaglandins for cell membrane and heart health. They are found in high concentrations in cold water fish and their oils (salmon, cod, tuna or mackerel). DHA is an essential nutrient for optimal brain and eye function. This omega-3 fatty acid makes up about 60% of the rods (responsible for visual acuity and night vision) found in the retina of the eye. The tissue of the brain is about 60% fat of which DHA makes up about 25%. The levels of omega-3 essential oils, especially DHA, can be directly linked to visual and mental performance and to neurological as well as visual disorders. AMD (Age-related macular degeneration) is the leading cause of blindness in the United States.

Benefits

There are many health benefits associated with the adequate intake of essential fatty acids. They include:

1. Reduction in the development and progression of AMD. The National Institute of Health is conducting the second in a series studying the effects of nutritional supplements including fish oil in slowing the progression of vision loss from AMD These new studies will examine the benefits of adding fish oil, lutien and zeaxanthin supplements to the diet. Preliminary studies have shown that they may protect the vision loss associated with AMD. Two studies released by the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology in 2003 showed a direct link between the consumption of fish oil and a decreased incident of two serious eye diseases, AMD (age related macular degeneration) and dry eye syndrome. Studies into the many benefits of the amoega-3 essential fatty acids, DHA and EPA, are on going. The improvement in eye health is attributed to fish oils ability to strengthen and support circulation in the eye.
2. Decreased incident of heart attack and stroke. Studies of Inuit (inhabitants of the polar regions of North America) and their almost all meat diet show that they rarely suffer from heart attacks. This is attributed to the high omega-3 oils found in the fat of seals, whales and fish. Later studies confirmed this observation.
3. Diets high in omega-3s showed a decreased risk of heart attack, abnormal heart rhythms and stroke.
4. Lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels as well as blood pressure.
5. Giving a boost to the immune systems. In early studies in the laboratory, fish oil shows promise of increasing the life span of people who suffer from autoimmune diseases such as diabetes.
6. Helping to managing the early symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). A measurable reduction in joint tenderness, early morning stiffness and fatigue combined with an increased grip strength has be seen in RA suffers taking fish oil capsules. Fish oil also seems to reduce the symptoms of RA without side effects and increases the effectiveness of standard medications for RA.
7. Being of considerable benefit to people suffering from bipolar disorder. A three month double blind study showed significant improvement of emotional stability and prevention of relapse. Of fourteen people given fish oil supplements, 11 stayed well or improved while in the fourteen who got no fish oil, only six remained well. Two other large studies showed a strong connection between mood, depression and bipolar disorder and fish consumption. Although research in this connection between omega-3 and omega-6 and mental health are not conclusive, they are beginning to show that these essential fatty acids may work on mood enhancement.
8. Protecting women from osteoporosis. A study of 65 postmenopausal women found that those who took a combination of omega-6 fatty acids omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil combined with calcium showed a higher bone density and fewer broken bones than those taking calcium alone.
9. Protect cognitive function in Alzheimer’s disease as found in studies done by Louisiana State University in 2005
10. In treating Attention Deficient Disorder. A study at the University of Adelaide showed that fish oil seemed to be as effective as Ritalin in treating this disorder.

Dietary Sources

Omega-3 essential oils are found in:

	Salmon		Lake Trout
	Herring, Mackerel, Tuna and Atlantic Cod		Sardines
	Flaxseed and Canola Oils		Walnuts
Spinach

Recommended Dosage:

1. It is recommended that 3-9gms of fish oil daily be taken daily.
2. For in hypertriglyceridemia is about 5 grams of combined EPA/DHA daily.
3. For hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis 3 grams daily.

The daily intake should be taken in divided doses; the supplements are best tolerated with meals.
The most common side effects from taking fish oil supplements are mild indigestion and a fishy taste in the mouth. Those side effects that have been reported include mild gastrointestinal upsets such as nausea and diarrhea, halitosis, eructation and "fishy" smelling breath, skin and even urine
Recommended fish oil products must contain antioxidants such as tocopherol to protect against their oxidation. Further, fish oil products that contain high quantities of vitamin A and D, which could be toxic, should not be used.
Capsules — 400 mg, 500 mg, 1000 mg, 1200 mg, 2000 mg

Contra-indications

People who are allergic to fish should get their omega-3 from sources other than fish oil.

If using a cod liver oil supplement monitor Vitamin A and D intake. Vitamin A intake should not exceed 5,000 U/U per day. Amount of vitamin D at levels above 1000 I/U a day for long periods of time can cause a toxic build up of this vitamin in the body.

Women who are pregnant or nursing should consult their health care practioner before starting the use of fish oil capsules.

Drug interactions

Fish oil has blood thinning properties. It should not be taken with aspiron or other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or pain killers, as well as Coumadin (warfarin).

NOTE: Fish oil supplements should be labeled that the product is from distilled, pharmaceutical grade fish oil. This will ensure that the product is free of mercury and other contaminates such as Chlordane. Fish oil becomes rancid easily. To ensure longer shelf life, purchase fish oil that contains added vitamin E. Vitamin E is an antioxidant and prevents spoilage of the fish oil.

Web References

1. http://www.webmd.com/content/article/64/72431.htm
2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_oil
3. http://www.umm.edu/altmed/ConsSupplements/Omega3FattyAcidscs.htmlFatty Acids :
4. The Gale Encyclopedia of Science
5. DHA: The Mind Mender : Psychology Today

Printed Reference Material

1. NIH Medline Plus. MedlinePlus Herbs and Supplements: Omega-3 fatty acids, fish oil, alpha-linolenic acid. Retrieved on February 14.
2. "Harvard Study Outlines Role of Fats in Blinding Eye Disease." Angiogenesis Weekly (October 12, 2001).
3. Adler AJ, Holub BJ. Effect of garlic and fish-oil supplementation on serum lipid and lipoprotein concentrations in hypercholesterolemic men. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997; 65:445-450.
4. Appel LJ, Miller ER III, Seidler AJ, Whelton PK. Does supplementation of diet with "fish oil' reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis of controlled clinical trials. Arch Intern Med. 1993; 153:1429-1438.
5. Ariza-Ariza R, Mestanza-Peralta M, Cardiel MH. Omega-3 fatty acid in rheumatoid arthritis: an overview. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1998; 27:366-370.
6. Belluzi A, Brignola C, Campieri M, et al. Effect of an enteric-coated fish-oil preparation on relapses in Crohn's disease. N Engl J Med. 1996; 334:1557-1560.
7. Connor WE, Prince MJ, Ullman D, et al. The hypotriglyceridemic effect of fish oil in adult-onset diabetes without adverse glucose control. Ann NY Acad Sci. 1993; 683: 337-340.
8. Curtis CL, Hughes CE, Flannery CR, et al. n-3 Fatty acids specifically modulate catabolic factors involved in articular cartilage degradation. J Biol Chem. 2000; 275:721-724.
9. Donadia Jr, JV, Bergstralh MS, Offard MS, et al. A controlled trial of fish oil in Iga nephropathy. N Engl J Med. 1994; 331:1194-1199.
10. Gapinski JP, VanRuiswyk JV, Heudebert GR, Schectman GS. Preventing restenosis with fish oils following coronary angioplasty: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 1993; 153:1595-1601.
11. GISSI-Prevenzione Investigators. Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E after myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial. Lancet. 1999; 354:447-455.
12. Gittleman, Ann Louise. Eat Fat, Lose Weight. Keats Publishing, 1999.
13. Grimsgaard S, Bonaa KH, Hansen J-B, Nordoy A. Highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acids in humans have similar triacylglycerol-lowering effects but divergent effects on serum fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997; 66:649-659.
14. Harris WS. Fish oils and plasma lipid and lipoprotein metabolism in humans: a critical review. J Lipid Res. 1989; 30:785-807.
15. Homan van der Heide JJ, Bilo HGJ, Donker JM, et al. Effect of dietary fish oil on renal function and rejection in cyclosporine-treated recipients of renal transplants. N Engl J Med. 1993; 329:769-763.
16. Joyce A. Nettleton, ed. PUFA Newsletter. Retrieved on February 20, 2006. Two newsletters, both quarterly, reviewing recent publications in essential fatty acids. One is written for researchers, the second is for consumers. Industry sponsored, academic contributors
17. Judith Sims
18. Kim H-J, Takahashi M, Ezaki O. Fish oil feeding decreases mature sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP-1) by down-regulation of SREBP-1c mRNA in mouse liver. J Biol Chem. 1999; 274:25892-25898.
19. Kremer JM. n-3 Fatty acid supplements in rheumatoid arthritis. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000; 71:349s-351s.
20. Majumder, Barun, Klaus J. Wahle, Susan Moir, and Steven D. Heys. "Conjugated Linoleic Acid Reduces Breast Tumor Growth Both by P53-Dependent and P53-Independent Pathways." Journal of Nutrition 131 (November 2001): 3140S.
21. McManus RM, Jumpson J, Finegood DT, et al. A comparison of the effects of n-3 fatty acids from linseed oil and fish oil in well-controlled type II diabetes. Diabetes Care. 1996; 9:463-467.
22. Murray, Michael T., and Jade Beutler. Understanding Fats and Oils: Your Guide to Healing with Essential Fatty Acids. Apple Publishing Co. Ltd., 2000.

Periodicals

1. Rebecca J. Frey, PhD
2. Stoll AL, Severus WE, Freeman MP, et al. Omega 3 fatty acids in bipolar disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 1999; 56:407- 412.
3. Toft I, Bonaa KH, Ingebresten OC, et al. Effects of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on glucose homeostasis and blood pressure in essential hypertension. Ann Intern Med. 1995; 123:911-918.
4. Von Schacky C, Angerer P, Kothny W, et al. The effect of dietary omega-3 fatty acids on coronary atherosclerosis. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Ann Intern Med. 1999; 130:554-562.

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Aids in building up the body's immune system, so it can resist colds and flu.

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This is also called Vitamin B9, Folate, and Pteroylglutamic acid. This vitamin works along with Vitamin B-12 and Vitamin C to help the body digest and use proteins and to synthesize new proteins when needed. Necessary for the production of red blood cells it also needed for the synthesis of DNA. Sources of Folate are spinach and turnip greens, dried beans and peas, fortified cereal products, and some fruits like oranges, strawberries and cantaloupes.

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Helps to maintain a healthy heart and circulatory system. Helps protect against cardiovascular disease, cancer, arthritis, and degenerative diseases.

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It’s the highest potency and most concentrated soluble fiber source available. Besides helping maintain regularity, Fibersol-2 helps maintain healthful blood glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride levels.

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Helps normalize blood glucose after meals, and helps to improve insulin response.

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Also known as Broad Bean, they are a prime source of protein. They contain naturally occurring L-dopa, a precursor to the neurotransmitter dopamine, which is used as a drug used to treat Parkinson’s disease.

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 Overview:

Flax is an annual plant that grows in temperate and tropical regions.  It reaches a height of  about 47 inches with slender stems.  The leaves are lancet shaped and from 1-2 inches long by 1.5 inches wide.  The flowers of flax are a pale blue and produces a dry seed capsule with several shiny brown seeds.

Archeological research shows that the use of flaxseed as a food source began about 9,000 years ago in what is now modern day Turkey.  From its beginnings in Turkey flaxseed spread through out the ancient world.  This includes ancient Egypt where the fibers in the stems where first used to make linen.  Flaxseed or linseed oil was the first oil to be commercially produced.  Solvent processed linseed oil has been used for centuries as a drying agent in paints and varnished.  In fact, it was the “oil” in oil based paints.

Active Ingredients:

Nutritional value of flaxseed in a 45 gram serving

Chemically active substances in dulse are:

• fiber including, ligans (phytoestrogens), hemi-cellulose, and cellulose
• alpha-linolenic acid an moega-3 fatty acid
• albumin
• linustatin
• linamarin

Traditional uses:

Some of the uses of flaxseed in traditional medicine are:

• for its high mucilage content makes it and excellent way to promote the health of the digestive tract.  It is also helpful in relieving the symptoms of gastritis and diarrhea by bulking up the stool and slowing down its movement through the digestive tract.
• a drawing poultice for wounds and skin eruptions
• detoxification
• sore throats

Clinical uses:

Because of its high alpha-linolitic acid content, flaxseed is used in the clinical setting

• as an anti-inflammatory in the treatment of Crohn’s disease and irritable bowel syndrome
• to lower cholesterol and decrease blood pressure.  Evidence suggests that diets rich in ALA are less likely to suffer a fatal heart attack. 
• restore and maintain the health of the digestive tract.
• to relieve the joint tenderness of rheumatoid arthritis
• to relive depression.  Studies have shown that the lack of omega-3-fatty acids (ALA is one of them) can lead to depression.
• The ligans in flaxseed have been show to play a role in cancer prevention and may slow the growth of tumor cells.  Studies have suggested that these ligans may help prevent the spread of melanoma to the lungs.

Recommended Dosage:

Flaxseed should be taken with lots of water to prevent bowel problems.

Pediatric
Flaxseed can be safely used in children.  It can be used to help balance the essential fatty acids and to relieve constipation.
In children 2-12 years old add 1tsp per day of ground flaxseed or flaxseed oil to relieve constipation.

In breast feed infants a mother may take flaxseed meal or oil to increase that fat content of breast milk.

Adult

• Decoction (a strong tea):  boil 15gms in 8oz of water, simmer for 10-15 minutes and strain.  This makes a soothing gruel and can be taken through out the day as needed.
• Ground flaxseed or oil- 1tbls 2-3 times a day with large amounts of water

Contra-indications:

Flaxseed is generally considered as safe in normal doses.  However:

1.  do not take flaxseed if there is any indication of impacted or blocked bowels
2. taking excessive amount of flaxseed without proper fluid intake can lead to ilius.
3. because of its mucilage content the absorption of other medications could be effected.  Any medication should be taken an hour before or after taking flaxseed.
4. always let your health care practioner know when you begin taking flaxseed or flaxseed oil.

Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding should consult a health care provider before using flaxseed or flaxseed oil.

Drug interactions

• blood thinning medication.  Omega-3 fatty acids may increase the effect of aspirin or warfarin.  Consult your health care practioner as dosage may need to be adjusted
• medications to lower cholesterol (statins)  as increasing the levels of the omega-3 fatty acids may increase the effectiveness of these medications.
• Cyclosporine, again it has been shown that the omega-3 fatty acids may reduce the toxic side effects of this medication in people who have undergone organ transplant.
• NSAIDS (nonsteroidal anti inflammatory drugs).  Some studies have shown that omega-3 fatty acids may reduce the risks of stomach ulcers from these medications.

Web References

1. Kroger
2. iBiblio.com
3. UMM.edu
4. FloraHealth.com

1. Angerer P, von Schacky C. n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and the cardiovascular system. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2000;11(1):57-63.
2. Appel LJ. Nonpharmacologic therapies that reduce blood pressure: a fresh perspective. Clin Cadiol. 1999;22(Suppl. III):III1-III5.
3. Arnold LE, Kleykamp D, Votolato N, Gibson RA, Horrocks L. Potential link between dietary intake of fatty acid and behavior: pilot exploration of serum lipids in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Adolesc Psychopharmacol. 1994;4(3):171-182.
4. Baumgaertel A. Alternative and controversial treatments for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatr Clin of North Am. 1999;46(5):977-992.
5. Belluzzi A, Boschi S, Brignola C, Munarini A, Cariani C, Miglio F. Polyunsaturated fatty acids and inflammatory bowel disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;71(suppl):339S-342S.
6. Boelsma E, Hendriks HF. Roza L. Nutritional skin care: health
7. Chiej. R. Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. MacDonald 1984 ISBN 0-356-10541-5, Covers plants growing in Europe. Also gives other interesting information on the plants. Good photographs.
8. Grieve. A Modern Herbal. Penguin 1984 ISBN 0-14-046-440-9, Not so modern (1930's?) but lots of information, mainly temperate plants.
9. Launert. E. Edible and Medicinal Plants. Hamlyn 1981 ISBN 0-600-37216-2, Covers plants in Europe. a drawing of each plant, quite a bit of interesting information.
10. Mabey. R. Plants with a Purpose. Fontana 1979 ISBN 0-00-635555-2, Details on some of the useful wild plants of Britain. Poor on pictures but otherwise very good.
11. Meydani M. Omega-3 fatty acids alter soluble markers of endothelial function in coronary heart disease patients. Nutr Rev. 2000;58(2 pt 1):56-59.
12. Mitchell EA, Aman MG, Turbott SH, Manku M. Clinical characteristics and serum essential fatty acid levels in hyperactive children. Clin Pediatr. 1987;26:406-411.
13. Prasad K. 1997. Dietary flax seed in prevention of hypercholesterolemic atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis 1997 Jul 11;132(1):69-76.
14. Stitt, PA 1997. History of Flax – 9000 years ago to 1986. Proc. of the 57th Flax Institute of the USA, March 26-28, 1998, Doublewood Inn, Fargo, North Dakota. J.F. Carter, ed. North Dakota State Univ., Fargo, ND pp. 152-153.
15. Thompson LU, Rickard SE, Orcheson LJ, et al. 1996. Flaxseed and its lignan and oil components reduce mammary tumor growth at a late stage of carcinogenesis. Carcinogenesis 17: 1373-6.
16. Thompson, L.U. 1998. Experimental studies on lignans and cancer. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab; 12:691–705.
17. Triska. Dr. Hamlyn Encyclopaedia of Plants. Hamlyn 1975 ISBN 0-600-33545-3 Very interesting reading, giving some details of plant uses and quite a lot of folk-lore.

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